Presentation:

The presentation addressed the application of principles of learning to undergraduate physical sciences and mathematics classrooms. Four key concepts of learning were considered: 1) the role of prior knowledge, 2) beliefs about “knowing” and “learning” science, 3) affective differences, and 4) coping with too much, too fast.

1. The Role of Prior Knowledge

The key to learning is making connections: connections between what you know and what you are being taught, what you hear in one class and what you hear in another, what you learn in one unit and what you learn in the next. Learning is the process of making these connections.

The quality of a student’s prior knowledge has a tremendous influence on how much he or she can learn in class. When designing instruction, one should consider the following four questions:

1. What breadth of prior knowledge do your students have?
2. Do they understand where your discipline fits in with all the other disciplines which they are taking classes?
3. How much do they know about the other related disciplines?
4. What kind of connections do they have to make between what you are teaching and those other disciplines in order to succeed in learning your class?

A critical aspect of learning is the depth of knowledge gained. Does the student have sufficient understanding of what has been taught well enough to make connections between ideas and across disciplines? Is the student able to produce examples, make analogies, and apply information? How deep is the student’s current knowledge, and what is the depth of knowledge for which you are aiming?

Accuracy of prior knowledge is also important. Many students come to science classes with misconceptions about how the world works. By thinking about these misconceptions you can address them in your instruction. They can even trigger students to want to learn. You could, for example, set up an experiment, have students make a prediction, and then ask the students to explain what happened in terms of their prediction.

Finally, there is variability among learners. Students come to class with a wide range of backgrounds. It is important for you to assess the extent of variability and, depending on the situation, either bring everybody up to speed in class or give those students who are not up to speed background information and assignments that they can work on outside of class.

2. Beliefs about “Knowing” and “Learning” Science

All of us have different beliefs about what constitutes learning. Many students, for example, believe in “the certainty of knowledge:” there is one right answer, the instructor always has the right answer, and the student’s job is to learn that answer. If a student has this belief, it can have tremendous implications on his or her learning in class.

Another belief about learning relates to how rapidly it occurs. Some students believe that learning must be instantaneous or it will not happen at all. They see their instructors solve problems instantly and respond to questions immediately. If they themselves do not understand something right way, they say “I can’t do that.”

Skepticism, a willingness to deal with less than perfect knowledge, the ability to withhold judgment, and the willingness to take risks are the attitudes about learning that students need in order to do higher level work. To teach critical thinking we must understand the beliefs our students harbor about our discipline, science, learning, and themselves as learners.

3. Affective Differences

Affective differences refer to differences in motivation. The most common form is anxiety—test anxiety, math anxiety, phobias about science. Other differences include motivation—one’s willingness to learn—and volition—one’s willingness to learn in the face of not understanding. Students have different levels of motivation, which impact their willingness to tackle difficult problems.

By understanding affective differences, instructors can create classroom environments that help students overcome them. Discrepancies between a student’s performance in class and on exams, for example, could be due to test anxiety; by increasing the frequency of exams, an instructor can help students grow accustomed to taking exams. To assist students with math or science phobias, instructors can structure situations so that students have a high probability of succeeding at challenging tasks.

4. Coping with Too Much, Too Fast

Every faculty member at a university has to deal with students having to learn “too much, too fast.” One way to help students cope with this difficulty is through structural understanding; that is, by providing experiences that enable them to gain understanding of the structure of the discipline, without necessarily knowing all the details. If students understand the structure of the discipline, they can reproduce information without having to remember the details. They can even speculate on details based on what they know about the structure.

We produce structural understanding through visualization (e.g., concept maps, outlines, flow charts, hierarchical structures), by how we organize the course, and by asking our students to take an active role in organizing information with us. If students can understand the structure, it is easier for them to learn the information, since they have something to attach it to.

Discussion:

The following topics were addressed in the group discussion:

• What can we do to motivate students to learn?
• Are there different learning styles?
• What is the difference between learning, knowing, and studying?
• Is it productive to provide students with outlines of chapters?
• How do we get students to stop writing down every word the instructor says?
• Does testing help students learn?
• How do you accurately assess what students learn through testing?
• What is the right amount of feedback?
• What is the effect of grades on student learning?

Recommendations:

• Learning theory has much to offer to help faculty understand principles of effective teaching and student learning that they can draw on in their own teaching. Many of the behaviors exhibited by faculty with respect to teaching and learning mirror the novice behavior of the students in their courses. These include wanting to know “the answers,” needing concrete examples, discomfort with uncertainty and incomplete knowledge, and a disinclination to go to abstract levels. Acknowledging and building on existing behaviors, with the goal of modifying that deter learning, should be an integral part of designing professional development programs.
• “Criterion-based grading” is strongly recommended over “norm-based grading,” in that the former promotes attainable success with investment, self-efficacy, a safe environment for being wrong and taking risks, and collaborative learning.